How a single gene alteration may have separated modern humans from predecessors

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Evolutionary studies rely heavily on two tools -genetics and fossil analysis - to explore how a species changes over time. But neither approach can reveal much about brain development and function because brains do not fossilize, Muotri said. There is no physical record to study. So Muotri decided to try stem cells, a tool not often applied in evolutionary reconstructions. Stem cells, the self-renewing precursors of other cell types, can be used to build brain organoids -- "mini brains" in a laboratory dish. Muotri and colleagues have pioneered the use of stem cells to compare humans to other primates, such as chimpanzees and bonobos, but until now a comparison with extinct species was not thought possible.

Brain organoids are little clusters of brain cells formed by stem cells, but they aren't exactly brains (for one, they lack connections to other organ systems, such as blood vessels). Yet organoids are useful models for studying genetics, disease development and responses to infections and therapeutic drugs. Muotri's team has even optimized the brain organoid-building process to achieve organized electrical oscillatory waves similar to those produced by the human brain.

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Journal of Thyroid Disorders & Therapy
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